The final theoretical session recapitulates some of the central information from all the previous ones by examining how violent behaviour, or rather a lack of self-regulation, and many forms of mental illness have their roots in the experiences of infancy. (Not invariably of course.) This also covers some of the possible early background to self-harm and suicidal behaviour. We begin with a reminder that aggression is actually normal human behaviour within certain contexts as it is a natural response to insecurity or threat. Aggression and violence are different, and usually the latter reduces as the child matures and internalises mechanisms for self-control, or affect regulation, both of which stem from the quality of early caregiving and find their home in the prefrontal cortex. These skills may be compromised by the experience of stress and fear during the first few years of life, the time of maximum neuroplasticity. The parent’s capacity for reflective functioning (mentalising in action) is important to consider and this also is knowledge that can be applied to intervention (as was briefly mentioned in the previous seminar) as well as contributing to emotional awareness as a protective factor that can be encouraged. We look at childhood adversity as a concept that covers many different stressful and dangerous experiences, leading on to another consideration of how this might affect the infant’s internal working models of relating. Developmental threat should also be seen within an ecological model, returning to the past consideration of risk factors. This leads on to a more 4 detailed consideration of the effects of maltreatment during infancy, including witnessing violence in the home: covering a range of mental health problems, relationships, anti-social plus violent and inappropriately aggressive behaviour and finally a more detailed examination of suicidal impulses and the common traits shown by those young people at risk. Violence, in conclusion, has many contributing factors stemming from actual and avoidable experiences, including those experienced pre-birth; it may indicate both poor reflective function (as found in borderline personality disorder) and be an example of ego defences set up during the early years. We separate threat from deprivation and go on to briefly look again at how these forms of maltreatment may influence brain development in the early years, with neglect often a greater risk for a later lack of self-control. This is gloomy to say the least, so we end with a reminder that intervention can be as useful as it is necessary. We hope.